It's an excellent question and absolutely something that we have continually made a tenet of our work at the ICCT. It's not good enough just to have strong regulations on the books. You have to have effective compliance, enforcement and penalties, so that these companies don't just see fines as the cost of doing business. It has to be a meaningful deterrent for ceasing that behaviour.
In terms of the specific actions that Canada can take, I think one is working with colleagues at the U.S. federal level to strengthen the in-use testing requirements for vehicles. As I mentioned previously, we've offered up several concrete ways in which remote sensing can be mobilized to start collecting lots of data about how vehicles are actually performing in the field and to actually pinpoint and find defeat devices or models that have defeat devices very cost-effectively. We're really excited to have governments start to use that method.
Absolutely, penalties have to be stringent. There has to be a commitment on behalf of the government to pursue those penalties, particularly in cases like these where the actions were just unprecedented and over several years.