Science and Research committee  First, pay gaps must be properly measured by comparing what is comparable. In the case of people who publish at the same frequency and receive comparable funding, there is generally no gender gap. It's the access of young professors, particularly young women, to this funding and to conference support that explains some of the gaps, not to mention the access to child care.

Science and Research committee  I think women need to be aware that they can ask for a market premium. Very often, women fall off their chairs when they realize that some of their colleagues have market premiums, and they didn't even think for one minute to ask for them. My colleague was talking about how difficult it is to find a job—

Science and Research committee  Collectively, they would have a much stronger voice if they were unionized, as opposed to each person negotiating a salary in the office of the head of the department.

Science and Research committee  At my institution, the parental leave for men is five weeks. For women, it varies widely. I'm not sure I understand. Most professors will take the parental leave that they have at their disposal. As for whether they take care of the children, I don't know. I have some interesting information.

Science and Research committee  It's definitely not. It's not a fifty-fifty proposition. You need a cultural change for men to decide to stay one year at home with their children and for women to do the same. Throughout society, that needs to change. It's not only in academia. The pressure under which academics are to perform....

Science and Research committee  It's probably the opposite. Per dollar invested, they publish more. I would see it that way, as opposed to.... I'm an optimist.

Science and Research committee  I think it's something that we impose upon ourselves. Imposter syndrome is very much present. You think you ought to work harder to get your promotion and you feel you have to delay it until you're really, really good, whereas men will normally ask for a promotion whenever they feel they deserve it.

Science and Research committee  Definitely.

Science and Research committee  I didn't do a retrospective study in terms of pay gaps. I've done some retrospective studies on publishing and grants, but not on the pay gap. It was the 2017 data. I don't have the history.

Science and Research committee  Women are systematically paid less. When I talked about the domination, it's in terms of graduates. We have more at the bachelor's, master's and Ph.D. levels in much of the universities. We have more women who graduate now than men. Men dominate in physics and engineering, but that's about it.

Science and Research committee  I think they probably are. If you look at the age difference, in every cohort women are slightly younger than men, so that explains maybe a $2,000 or $3,000 difference in terms of cohort effects. If you look at the Statistics Canada data, they are by groups. You have the median salary or the means salary—I can't quite remember—of the whole of assistant professors, the whole of associate professors....

Science and Research committee  In fact, it's not that they don't have a significant impact. It's that we are able to explain the pay gaps by age and number of children. To give you an idea, we measure the percentage attributable to age, which, according to some results, contributes to 5.48% of the gap. So we're able to explain a portion of the 4% to 6% gap between men and women by a difference in age between men and women.

Science and Research committee  In Quebec, if I'm not mistaken, with the exception of McGill University and HEC Montréal, all universities have collective agreements, that is to say professors have a union. We haven't looked at it in detail, but where there is a collective agreement and a union, the gender gap is much smaller than in universities where there isn't that kind of support, which contributes enormously to reducing those gaps.

Science and Research committee  I've done a number of studies on the state of young scientists. We were talking earlier about the start of careers. Where the problem lies and where we really need to work very hard is with young women who are starting their careers and have children. That's where we're really lagging behind, because we are juggling family, children and the start of a career, writing grant applications and setting up courses.

Science and Research committee  In our study, we separated administrative positions such as rector or department director from other administrative positions such as laboratory director or bachelor's or master's program manager. When it came to less prestigious administrative positions, women were systematically paid less than men, in terms of administrative bonuses.