Information & Ethics committee  The phenomenon you've described is absolutely an existential risk. All I can say is that in terms of linking directly to election-level outcomes, we've not seen that yet. It doesn't mean that misinformation is not potentially deeply harmful or damaging to democracy in other ways.

Information & Ethics committee  Yes, I fear I've given the impression that I don't think misinformation and disinformation are potential existential threats. Instead, what I'm saying is that today in Canada, from what we've observed in terms of the impacts of incidences of misinformation and disinformation, it hasn't yet risen to the level of election threat or existential threat to democracy.

Information & Ethics committee  I have two quick things. I absolutely agree that misinformation and disinformation can exacerbate political anger in a huge way and generate moments like January 6 and the trucker protest. These can be strongly linked to misinformation and disinformation. Misinformation and disinformation are consequential.

Information & Ethics committee  To some extent, the studies showed that one of the most serious consequences of misinformation is a loss of confidence in politics. Over the past five years, there has been a change in people's confidence in the media, politicians and journalists. This significant change of approximately 10 points in the surveys is mainly the outcome of disinformation and misinformation.

Information & Ethics committee  Yes, of course. We've already published one study on this topic and we could also write something for you that provides further details on this issue.

Information & Ethics committee  Yes. Thank you for the opportunity. Very quickly, this is absolutely a phenomenon. Russia, Iran, and other entities do try to manipulate the information ecosystem in a country like Canada. That is a phenomenon. We need to understand it and we need to better study it. Some of the work I do is really about trying to link entities from foreign countries and their penetration of the Canadian information ecosystem.

Information & Ethics committee  Thank you, Mr. Chair. The question here is about where it comes from. In regular political discourse, there is—

Information & Ethics committee  I know, but honestly, it would be better for everyone if I could answer in English.

Information & Ethics committee  Okay.

Information & Ethics committee  Out of respect, I'll try to answer in French. You're asking about the sources of misinformation and disinformation. In politics, there is always debate over facts. The difference between misinformation and disinformation is not always neat and clear. Sometimes, as Mr. Chiu was saying, it's obvious that there is disinformation, but there are genuine debates over most of the facts, and it's the role of politicians, among others, to navigate through it all, to listen, to speak out and to find the truth together, or to just accept that they have differing opinions.

Information & Ethics committee  In 2021, we did a survey based on a representative sample of the population, and in particular our Chinese-Canadian population. We monitored changes of opinion among Canadians during the election. If there had been a highly effective disinformation campaign, by which I mean that it really changed people's opinions, we would have seen it in the survey results.

Information & Ethics committee  Thank you, Chair. Thank you, everyone. My name is Aengus Bridgman. I'm an assistant professor at McGill University, where I direct the Media Ecosystem Observatory. We're Canada's leading research entity dedicated to understanding and addressing online harms. We also anchor the Canadian Digital Media Research Network.